Research Design and Methods Introduction to Quantitative Research and SPSS

Preoccupations of quantitative researchers

•       Measurement – external facts can be measured (without influence from the researcher) 

•       Causality – why are things the way they are? What is the association between variables?

•       Generalisation – being able to say the findings would apply in a wider population

•       Replication – if the study was repeated, it would produce the same results

What is a survey?

•       A survey is not just a particular technique of collecting information: questionnaires are widely used but other techniques, such as structured and in-depth interviews, observation, content analysis and so forth, can also be used in survey research.  The distinguishing feature of surveys are the form of data and method of analysis” (De Vaus, 2002, p. 3)

•       “Surveys are characterised by a structured or systematic set of data… all this means is that we collect information about the same variables or characteristics from at least two (normally far more) cases… Since the same information is collected for each case the cases are directly comparable and we end up with a structured set of data” (De Vaus, 2002, p.3)

The components of a quantitative survey

1. The research instrument – usually the questionnaire -pretested
2. A method of implementation – online, face to face, postal, telephone.  Piloted.
3. Methods of administration – inc. recording and monitoring of  responses, cover letters, advance notification
4. A sampling strategy – including determination of sample size and method
5. A strategy for dealing with non-response
6. A system for processing, editing and cleaning data (SPSS)
7. Analysis of sample composition & representativeness
8. A quantitative statistical analysis of the data matrix – inc. analysis of variation and appropriate statistical output
9. Presentation of analysis – including tabular, graphical and statistical presentations
10. The report – including an evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the survey and any caveats associated with data interpretation.

Planning survey research

•       Identifying the population and the sampling framework

•       Design of the survey (what questions to ask and how)

•       Considering the analysis you will need to undertake to answer you research questions

•       Identifying the statistical tests to use and why

•       Much of this is done BEFORE data collection/analysis, i.e. careful design a priori

Important notions for research design:
samples and population

•       POPULATION:

                The entire set of cases under discussion

                (e.g. all visitors who have visited Lincoln cathedral)

•       SAMPLE:

                The set of cases that you are collecting data on

                (e.g. the visitors to the cathedral who complete the cathedral survey)

‘N’ is the number of these responses

Why sample?

Making models of the ‘whole population’ from samples drawn from it.

                Each sample will have a mean value that will vary from the ‘true mean’ for the population (which we may never really know) but we can expect the value of a sample to be within a certain range of the true mean (if the sample is randomly drawn from the same population).

                We can use this to give us some measure of the confidence of our estimates.

Types of sample/sampling method

probability sampling

•       Simple random sample

•       Stratified random sampling

non-probability sampling

•       Target sampling

•       Convenience sampling

•       Snowball sampling

How Big a Sample? When to stop?

•       For small samples you would need to use other statistical tests/distributions. In general, bigger is better.

•       General rule of thumb is usually ‘bigger is better’

•       The Economist’s (1997) rule of thumb is minimum of 30 items of data in a statistical analysis

How representative are the results?

•       Depends on: (1) number of responses (the more the better) and (2) heterogeneity of responses

               

Sample sizes required for sampling errors at 95% confidence level (for random samples)

Sample Size	Sampling Error
10,000 1,100 400 204 100	1% 3% 5% 7% 10%

Important notions for survey design:
independent and dependent variables

•       INDEPENDENT VARIABLES’:

                The variables in your survey that are INDEPENDENT of this particular survey  (e.g. the questions relating to a respondent’s personal information such as their gender)

•       DEPENDENT VARIABLES’:

                The variables that are not independent … (e.g. the variables that relate to questions about a particular service or product)

About SPSS

•       Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

•       Used in: market research, academia, government, health sector, education, human resources

•       Designed for analysis of large datasets, such as survey results, company records

•       Functions include: frequencies, cross-tabs, tables, graphs, correlations, among others as well as ability to calculate confidence levels etc

Data Presentation in SPSS

Data stored in SPSS is presented as a matrix. The variable names head the columns, and the information for each case or record is displayed across the rows.

 Types of Quantitative Data

Nominal	Data is not numerical, but is defined by different characteristics (male and female; student, employed, unemployed)
Ordinal	Nominal data that can be ranked (rating scales; age groups – 18-24, 25-34, 35-44)
Interval or Continuous	Values are measured numerically (e.g. age in years, salary, turnover, sales, distance)

Presenting Quantitative Data

	Presented Using	Measuring “Typical Response”
Nominal	Frequency Table Bar Chart (space between the bars) Pie Chart	Mode – the most common response
Ordinal	Frequency Table Bar Chart (space between the bars) Pie Chart	Median – the middle response when values are ranked
Interval or Continuous	Histogram (no space between the bars)	Mean – the average response

Missing Values

•       Missing values are non-responses - where questions haven’t been completed, or are not relevant to the respondent.

•       In most cases, responses should be presented without missing values – in other words, the VALID response.  Take care to provide details of number of valid/invalid responses.

•       Consider “don’t know” and “no opinion” responses – do you want to include these in your analysis?  They may provide insight into areas that respondents aren’t familiar with, or are undecided about.

Labelling

All tables and charts should include:

•       Number and Title (e.g. Graph 1: Age Breakdown of Sample)

•       Labels for variables on rows and columns (or axis if a chart), including whether %, whole numbers, currency

•       If presenting percentages, provide details of number of responses too (e.g. at bottom of graph “based on 60 valid responses”)

               

                Remember that presenting data in tables and charts does not constitute analysis.  Write a clear narrative around your data to explain the figures, and to outline what the data is telling you

Univariate and Bivariate Analysis

Univariate: Analysis of ONE variable, e.g. gender breakdown in your sample.  Can be presented using tables, bar charts, histograms, pie charts 

 Bivariate: Analysis of TWO variables, e.g. relationship between gender and salary.  Can also use cross-tabulations, line graphs, scatter graphs

Univariate Analysis

•       Frequencies

	Number	%
Agree	40	50%
Don’t Know	30	37.5%
Disagree	10	12.5%
TOTAL	80	100%

•       Descriptives

	N	Min	Max	Mean	Std. Deviation
How many people does your business normally employ? - Full Time	71	0	1500	32.15	180.513
Valid N	71

The ‘composition’ of your sample (sample composition):

What is this?

•       Is what your sample is composed of i.e. who is in your sample (what are the personal characteristics of the respondents in your survey?)

•       Is a summary of the independent variables in your database

Should be summarised :

Sample Composition	%
Males Females	55% 45%
Under 25s 25-35 years Over 35s	20% 70% 10%
UK EU Other	20% 40% 40%
N = 72

Looking at differences by independent variable: cross-tabs

   ‘Cross-Tabs’

(for nominal and

ordinal variables)

               

•       Need to decide on the independent (cause) and dependent (effect) variable to read percentages in a cross-tab. 

•       “If independent variable is across the top, use column percentage and compare these across the table.  If the independent variable is on the side use row percentages and compare these down the table” De Vaus (1996) p. 159

	Male	Female
Like Chocolate	25 50%	40 80%
Don’t Like Chocolate	25 50%	10 20%
TOTAL	50 100%	50 100%

_{Why do bivariate analysis?}

•       Usually, to move beyond ‘description’ to ‘explanation’. To move beyond ‘how things are’ to ‘why things are the way they are’

•       Explanation can be theoretically informed (testing theory) or inductive (producing theory)

•       Measured effects are explained by measured causes.  In other words ‘explanation’ requires the analysis of relationships within the data.  Often relationships are explored between ‘independent’ and ‘dependent’ variables.  

•       Quantitative analysis is more than explanation – it also about prediction.   It involves inferring what is likely within a wider population, given certain conditions.

•       Design limitations imply that ‘explanations’ are probabilistic.  Hence, ‘attending class increases the likelihood of doing well in assessments’.

Consumption as a tool for expressing gender identity

Introduction

The interplay between gender and consumption is attributed to the symbolic meaning often attached to the products that are consumed. Products and services are not consumed solely for the utility that is derived from them: they also have a symbolic value (Turner, et al., 2013). Consumers therefore seek to distinguish their identities using consumption along class, gender and other identities. These trends have culminated into certain products being associated with different genders. In fact, this essay outlines many examples where consumers seek to express their gender identity through consumption. In some cases, the consumption of products such as clothing and other beauty products have been used to advance the queer theory concept where emergent sexual orientations are manifested through identification with the respective genders (Segal and Podoshen, 2013). This essay argues that there is sufficient proof that gender identity is effectively manifested through consumption and easily exploitable by advertisers.

Theoretical perspectives

The concept of consumption and gender identity is related to the theory of embodiment. This theory holds that gender is beyond the sex of the individuals but a result of a process of social construction (Buttler, 2006). This process is a negotiated process derived from both the societal norms and the personal perceptions of the individual. The societal norm has been the clear definition of what is male and female and this has in oft times been characterised by established stereotypes and perceptions over how each gender behaves and the nature of products that it is expected to consume. Ye and Robertson (2012) reiterate these views by holding the fact that while sex can be a determinant of traits and identity, it is the history and the social environments that play an important role in shaping their self-constructions of gender identity. Nevertheless, sex remains the most common variable for distinguishing gender identity.

In fields such as the clothing industry, the trend has been widely accepted to an extent that the sex of the consumer could easily be distinguished from their dressing (Segal and Podoshen, 2013). The same applies to other products such as beauty products and even cars where certain colours and shapes are associated with certain genders. While it may appear that the society could be imposing consumption standards based on the identity that members of different sexes are expected to embrace, the reality is that the individual has an equal right to opt to either conform or resist (Turner, et al., 2013). Needless to say, culture is at the heart of these theories. Cultures dictate how societies communicate, dress, consume and how they conduct themselves in general. They also shape how certain actions and products are perceived.

This is why different products are perceived differently in different cultures. For instance, while some cultures may frown on men wearing dresses and advocating for trousers, others may widely accept it (Lenz, 2002). The same applies to products such as earrings, bangles and others which are worn on different parts of the body. Culture is the main determinant of what is perceived as masculine and feminine. The perceptions created thereof are the ones that are adopted by consumers when making choices on how to express their gender identity through consumption (Lenz, 2002). One wishing to be seen as female would therefore consume what the society perceives as feminine while the converse is true for one intending to identify themselves with males. As a general rule, sex is the main distinguishing factor.

It has not been uncommon to come across different forms of resistance to these dominant cultures with some of the most obvious ones being described under the framework of the queer theory. The queer theory enables understanding of gendered consumption by evaluating different forms of resistance to the dominant culture (Bendl, Fleischmann and Hofmann, 2009). It has increasingly adopted a platform for challenging the principle of identifying gender through sex with some people tending to identify with opposite genders. In other words, the queer theory is preoccupied with the concept of mismatch between sex and gender (Digangi, 2006). Emergent sexual orientations such as homosexuality are among the outstanding manifestations of the queer theory. It is further enhanced through consumption of dressing and other products as discussed in the sections below.

Applying gender identity to consumption

Gender identity shapes the perceptions of the individuals in relation to consumption choices by influencing their approach to information processing and attitudes towards products (Ye and Robertson, 2012). The congruency between brands and gender identity is based on the premise that consumers would prefer to match their sense of masculinity or femininity.  Individuals are therefore able to embrace the consumption of the selected products as a sign of being comfortable or a member of the gender identity associated with the product (Katz-Gerro and Sullivan, 2010). One of the product through which gender identity is enhanced is food. Various stereotypes exist in different communities regarding which foods can be considered feminine or masculine.

According to Turner et al (2013), foods such as beef and animal flesh in general have been traditionally associated with masculinity while some communities such as the Frenchmen held the view that fruits and fish are foods for women. Similarly, sweet foods are regarded as feminine in most countries, and specifically in Japan (Turner et al, 2013). While these stereotypes may not be universal, understanding them goes a long way in understanding the kind of choices that consumers make regarding their consumption choices. Foods such as ice cream, cheese and fast foods are accordingly commonly branded as feminine foods while meets and sour foods commonly associated with males. Turner et al (2013) confirmed through their study that people do conform to these stereotypes with women tending to opt for feminine foods as stereotyped. The converse is true for men. The same observations can be made in regards to dressing and its attribution to gender identity.

Dressing has been one of the most significant avenues for expressing gender identity. Clothing stands out as one of those products that uniquely reflect on the personal identity of the wearer (Zou, 2012). Dressing has traditionally been one of the most popular instruments for self-expression where different classes have different modes of dressing. In fact, dressing has been one of the avenues for entrenching class distinction in most society. In reference to gender, most societies have unwritten dress codes that create clear differences between men and women.  The society has a way of identifying what is feminine and what is feminine with persons of either gender expected to fit into the respective styles (Natasha, 2006). The images provided below represent clothes that would automatically be attributed to either gender. 

 Figure 1: An assortment of clothes for women

 Figure 2: An assortment of clothes for men

Even though fashion has evolved with time, there have been significant differences between dress codes for males and that for females (Zou, 2012). Nevertheless, these changing fashions have largely accommodated changing societal perceptions regarding changing gender roles in the society. For instance, the emergence of corporate wear among women has been a manifestation of an acknowledged potential of women to perform as well as men with some dresses being less feminine (Ye and Robertson, 2012). These changing trends have been attributed to many other products apart from dressing and they have largely been conforming to changing gender roles within the society with women being transformed into secondary earners into equal players in the economy.

Changing gender roles through history can therefore be easily manifested in the choice of consumption of products and how such choices evolve with time. This is proven in a study by Lyons and Willot (2008) where alcohol consumption trends among women in Western countries was studied and related to the concept of evolving gender roles in the society. This is a form of culture resistance where members of a given gender seek to redefine their identity by delving into the consumption of products that re associated with the opposite gender. Lyons and Willot (2008) observe that alcohol has been traditionally masked as masculine and a sign of their dominance within the society: both in authority and economic power.

With the changing status of women in the society where they are no longer seen as inferior to men, it would make sense for women to consume as much alcohol as men (Lyons and Willot, 2008). Women have steadily sought to shed their image as the lesser sex while taking pride in their image as symbols of beauty. This has led to the emergence new dressing trends that can best bring out this image. For instance, the rising popularity of trouser suits for women helps cement their sense of liberation while taking pride in their identity as women (Natasha, 2006). In many cases, such suits will retain the feminine aspects such as accentuation of body features, smooth texture, and even being in colours commonly known to be feminine. 

There is a cultural aspect to gender image and consumers are often forced to make a decision on whether to conform or to resist. Cultural resistance starts with consumers defying the established norms. If the new trends become widely acceptable, they are recrystallized as the new cultural norms that would have to undergo resistance in future in order to change (Butler, 2006). For instance, colours that are currently considered as strongly feminine have not always been associated with the gender. For instance, men traditionally wore dresses that were more flamboyant and colourful than the dresses worn by women. The culture has changed over time with men going for duller and simpler cloth designs while women remain focused on projecting beauty through dress (Lenz, 2002). The changes were certainly introduced through different forms of cultural resistance with different genders seeking to not redefine how they are represented in the society.

One form of cultural resistance in the contemporary times is the emergence of cross-dressing and cross-gender consumption as alluded to in the queer theory. With the emergence of a gay community, there have been many attempts to redefine their gender through consumption patterns. Hsie and Wu (2011) describe the gay men as more stylish and less masculine than the traditional males. While their consumption is not strictly feminine for most parts, they tend to combine traditional perceptions of masculinity and femininity in a manner that does not fully fit into either category. In some cases, such men tend to fully embrace feminine products such as dresses, high heel shoes and makeup in addition to body grooming trends such as leg shaving (Oakenfull, 2012). These consumption patterns are used to cement their new identities and to help distinguish themselves from the traditional sex roles. In relation to dressing, this has been manifested in a growing tendency to embrace cross-dressing.

Cross-dressing refers to the art of using clothes that are associated with a different sex (Natasha, 2006). For instance, it can happen when a man dresses in women clothes that are cross dressing. The motives for cross-dressing may differ from identity, artistic and even for investigative purposes. Irrespective of such reasons, it demonstrates the capability of consumers to use dressing as a tool for creating gender identity. It demonstrates the fact that gender identity is not entirely dependent on sex and that it is always possible for people to identify with members of the opposite gender. In the images below, the same men is seen in their natural state and also in a cross-dressed situation where the gender could easily be assumed to be as projected. 

With these cross-dressing examples, it is easy to demonstrate how consumption can be used to bring out the gender identity of the consumers. In some cases, however, consumers have simply sought to be queer where their consumption is not easily linked to either gender. These choices demonstrate the fact that consumers are acutely aware of the fact that consumption is closely related to their gender identity. They accordingly seek to use their choice of products to project their affinity to the gender that is projected through such imagery.

Opportunities for advertisers

In understanding the tendency of consumers to seek to identify their genders through consumption, advertisers tend to adopt corresponding messages to sell their products in the market. The existence of stereotypes on what constitutes the masculine and feminine attributes is useful in target marketing and selling products to consumers who’d readily adopt them. According to Cherry, Ellis and DeSoucey (2010) perceptions of gender are among the most important considerations taken when designing advertisement messages. The brand spokesman tends to have an influence on the gender identity associated with a product or brand and where targeting is done effectively, more sales are generated for the organisation.

In understanding the gender perceptions of different products, advertisers are able to exploit and even change such perceptions. Through consistent advertisement and marketing, the beauty industry has managed to convince males that wearing deodorants and perfumes is not feminine and that it is in fact desirable of men (Cherry, Ellis and DeSoucey). Nevertheless, there are significant differences in the types of packaging and fragrance to bring out a masculine aspect of the products. In the end, marketers can easily exploit gender perceptions to grow their business by encouraging the market to pursue self-identification using their products. They could also exploit the existence of some of the unpopular gender stereotypes to encourage consumption as an avenue through which existing gender positions and perspectives can be altered.

The selling point for any brand is its ability to facilitate identity as desired by customers. In regards to gender identity, customers are more likely to consume products that conform to their preferences in regards to masculinity and femininity. Where these identities are not inherent in the product features, they can also be created through imagery where branding is done to associate such products or brands with the corresponding gender traits. Marketers can therefore benefit immensely by understanding and exploiting the concept of gender identity through consumer choices.

Conclusion

From the discussions above, it is clear that products carry a symbolic meaning and people tend to consume them to identify with the meanings that they carry. One of the identities that customers seek to project is gender identity. This is done by allocating different levels of femininity and masculinity to products. Clothes, foods, drinks and other products serve as platforms for expressing gender identity. A central component is the society and culture. Societies create stereotypes on the femininity and masculinity of certain products and members of the society are often forced to conform to the same while seeking to identify with their different genders through consumption.

They could also form to resist the culture and seek to entrench alternative consumption patterns aimed at confronting existing stereotypes. These acts of cultural resistance often tend to result in changing cultural perceptions about certain products. For instance, the increased drinking prevalence among women is likely to change the image that alcohol is a masculine product in the long run. Irrespective of whether one conforms or confronts the dominant culture, the association between gender identity and consumption is established. This is the reason why marketers seek to exploit these gender representations to target different market segments to ensure that they are adopted in the markets.

References

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