Introduction
The interplay between gender and
consumption is attributed to the symbolic meaning often attached to the
products that are consumed. Products and services are not consumed solely for
the utility that is derived from them: they also have a symbolic value (Turner,
et al., 2013). Consumers therefore seek to distinguish their identities using
consumption along class, gender and other identities. These trends have
culminated into certain products being associated with different genders. In
fact, this essay outlines many examples where consumers seek to express their
gender identity through consumption. In some cases, the consumption of products
such as clothing and other beauty products have been used to advance the queer
theory concept where emergent sexual orientations are manifested through
identification with the respective genders (Segal and Podoshen, 2013). This
essay argues that there is sufficient proof that gender identity is effectively
manifested through consumption and easily exploitable by advertisers.
Theoretical perspectives
The concept of consumption and gender
identity is related to the theory of embodiment. This theory holds that gender
is beyond the sex of the individuals but a result of a process of social
construction (Buttler, 2006). This process is a negotiated process derived from
both the societal norms and the personal perceptions of the individual. The
societal norm has been the clear definition of what is male and female and this
has in oft times been characterised by established stereotypes and perceptions
over how each gender behaves and the nature of products that it is expected to
consume. Ye and Robertson (2012) reiterate these views by holding the fact that
while sex can be a determinant of traits and identity, it is the history and
the social environments that play an important role in shaping their
self-constructions of gender identity. Nevertheless, sex remains the most
common variable for distinguishing gender identity.
In fields such as the clothing industry,
the trend has been widely accepted to an extent that the sex of the consumer
could easily be distinguished from their dressing (Segal and Podoshen, 2013).
The same applies to other products such as beauty products and even cars where
certain colours and shapes are associated with certain genders. While it may
appear that the society could be imposing consumption standards based on the
identity that members of different sexes are expected to embrace, the reality
is that the individual has an equal right to opt to either conform or resist
(Turner, et al., 2013). Needless to say, culture is at the heart of these
theories. Cultures dictate how societies communicate, dress, consume and how
they conduct themselves in general. They also shape how certain actions and
products are perceived.
This is why different products are
perceived differently in different cultures. For instance, while some cultures
may frown on men wearing dresses and advocating for trousers, others may widely
accept it (Lenz, 2002). The same applies to products such as earrings, bangles
and others which are worn on different parts of the body. Culture is the main
determinant of what is perceived as masculine and feminine. The perceptions
created thereof are the ones that are adopted by consumers when making choices
on how to express their gender identity through consumption (Lenz, 2002). One
wishing to be seen as female would therefore consume what the society perceives
as feminine while the converse is true for one intending to identify themselves
with males. As a general rule, sex is the main distinguishing factor.
It has not been uncommon to come across
different forms of resistance to these dominant cultures with some of the most
obvious ones being described under the framework of the queer theory. The queer
theory enables understanding of gendered consumption by evaluating different forms
of resistance to the dominant culture (Bendl, Fleischmann and Hofmann, 2009).
It has increasingly adopted a platform for challenging the principle of
identifying gender through sex with some people tending to identify with
opposite genders. In other words, the queer theory is preoccupied with the
concept of mismatch between sex and gender (Digangi, 2006). Emergent sexual
orientations such as homosexuality are among the outstanding manifestations of
the queer theory. It is further enhanced through consumption of dressing and
other products as discussed in the sections below.
Applying gender identity to
consumption
Gender identity shapes the perceptions
of the individuals in relation to consumption choices by influencing their
approach to information processing and attitudes towards products (Ye and
Robertson, 2012). The congruency between brands and gender identity is based on
the premise that consumers would prefer to match their sense of masculinity or
femininity. Individuals are therefore
able to embrace the consumption of the selected products as a sign of being
comfortable or a member of the gender identity associated with the product
(Katz-Gerro and Sullivan, 2010). One of the product through which gender
identity is enhanced is food. Various stereotypes exist in different
communities regarding which foods can be considered feminine or masculine.
According to Turner et al (2013), foods
such as beef and animal flesh in general have been traditionally associated
with masculinity while some communities such as the Frenchmen held the view
that fruits and fish are foods for women. Similarly, sweet foods are regarded
as feminine in most countries, and specifically in Japan (Turner et al, 2013).
While these stereotypes may not be universal, understanding them goes a long
way in understanding the kind of choices that consumers make regarding their
consumption choices. Foods such as ice cream, cheese and fast foods are
accordingly commonly branded as feminine foods while meets and sour foods
commonly associated with males. Turner et al (2013) confirmed through their
study that people do conform to these stereotypes with women tending to opt for
feminine foods as stereotyped. The converse is true for men. The same
observations can be made in regards to dressing and its attribution to gender
identity.
Dressing has been one of the most
significant avenues for expressing gender identity. Clothing stands out as one
of those products that uniquely reflect on the personal identity of the wearer
(Zou, 2012). Dressing has traditionally been one of the most popular
instruments for self-expression where different classes have different modes of
dressing. In fact, dressing has been one of the avenues for entrenching class
distinction in most society. In reference to gender, most societies have
unwritten dress codes that create clear differences between men and women. The society has a way of identifying what is
feminine and what is feminine with persons of either gender expected to fit
into the respective styles (Natasha, 2006). The images provided below represent
clothes that would automatically be attributed to either gender.
Even though fashion has evolved
with time, there have been significant differences between dress codes for
males and that for females (Zou, 2012).
Nevertheless, these changing fashions have largely accommodated changing
societal perceptions regarding changing gender roles in the society. For
instance, the emergence of corporate wear among women has been a manifestation
of an acknowledged potential of women to perform as well as men with some
dresses being less feminine (Ye and Robertson, 2012). These
changing trends have been attributed to many other products apart from dressing
and they have largely been conforming to changing gender roles within the
society with women being transformed into secondary earners into equal players
in the economy.
Changing gender roles
through history can therefore be easily manifested in the choice of consumption
of products and how such choices evolve with time. This is proven in a study by
Lyons and Willot (2008) where alcohol consumption trends among women in Western
countries was studied and related to the concept of evolving gender roles in
the society. This is a form of culture resistance where members of a given
gender seek to redefine their identity by delving into the consumption of
products that re associated with the opposite gender. Lyons and Willot (2008)
observe that alcohol has been traditionally masked as masculine and a sign of
their dominance within the society: both in authority and economic power.
With the changing
status of women in the society where they are no longer seen as inferior to
men, it would make sense for women to consume as much alcohol as men (Lyons and
Willot, 2008). Women have steadily sought to shed their image as the lesser sex
while taking pride in their image as symbols of beauty. This has led to the
emergence new dressing trends that can best bring out this image. For instance,
the rising popularity of trouser suits for women helps cement their sense of
liberation while taking pride in their identity as women (Natasha, 2006). In
many cases, such suits will retain the feminine aspects such as accentuation of
body features, smooth texture, and even being in colours commonly known to be
feminine.
There is a cultural aspect to gender image and consumers are often forced to make a decision on whether to conform or to resist. Cultural resistance starts with consumers defying the established norms. If the new trends become widely acceptable, they are recrystallized as the new cultural norms that would have to undergo resistance in future in order to change (Butler, 2006). For instance, colours that are currently considered as strongly feminine have not always been associated with the gender. For instance, men traditionally wore dresses that were more flamboyant and colourful than the dresses worn by women. The culture has changed over time with men going for duller and simpler cloth designs while women remain focused on projecting beauty through dress (Lenz, 2002). The changes were certainly introduced through different forms of cultural resistance with different genders seeking to not redefine how they are represented in the society.
One form of cultural
resistance in the contemporary times is the emergence of cross-dressing and
cross-gender consumption as alluded to in the queer theory. With the emergence
of a gay community, there have been many attempts to redefine their gender
through consumption patterns. Hsie and Wu (2011) describe the gay men as more
stylish and less masculine than the traditional males. While their consumption
is not strictly feminine for most parts, they tend to combine traditional
perceptions of masculinity and femininity in a manner that does not fully fit
into either category. In some cases, such men tend to fully embrace feminine
products such as dresses, high heel shoes and makeup in addition to body
grooming trends such as leg shaving (Oakenfull, 2012). These consumption
patterns are used to cement their new identities and to help distinguish
themselves from the traditional sex roles. In relation to dressing, this has
been manifested in a growing tendency to embrace cross-dressing.
Cross-dressing refers to the art of
using clothes that are associated with a different sex (Natasha, 2006). For
instance, it can happen when a man dresses in women clothes that are cross
dressing. The motives for cross-dressing may differ from identity, artistic and
even for investigative purposes. Irrespective of such reasons, it demonstrates
the capability of consumers to use dressing as a tool for creating gender
identity. It demonstrates the fact that gender identity is not entirely
dependent on sex and that it is always possible for people to identify with
members of the opposite gender. In the images below, the same men is seen in
their natural state and also in a cross-dressed situation where the gender
could easily be assumed to be as projected.
With these cross-dressing examples, it is easy to demonstrate how consumption can be used to bring out the gender identity of the consumers. In some cases, however, consumers have simply sought to be queer where their consumption is not easily linked to either gender. These choices demonstrate the fact that consumers are acutely aware of the fact that consumption is closely related to their gender identity. They accordingly seek to use their choice of products to project their affinity to the gender that is projected through such imagery.
Opportunities for advertisers
In understanding the tendency of
consumers to seek to identify their genders through consumption, advertisers
tend to adopt corresponding messages to sell their products in the market. The
existence of stereotypes on what constitutes the masculine and feminine
attributes is useful in target marketing and selling products to consumers
who’d readily adopt them. According to Cherry, Ellis and DeSoucey (2010)
perceptions of gender are among the most important considerations taken when
designing advertisement messages. The brand spokesman tends to have an
influence on the gender identity associated with a product or brand and where
targeting is done effectively, more sales are generated for the organisation.
In understanding the gender perceptions
of different products, advertisers are able to exploit and even change such
perceptions. Through consistent advertisement and marketing, the beauty
industry has managed to convince males that wearing deodorants and perfumes is
not feminine and that it is in fact desirable of men (Cherry, Ellis and
DeSoucey). Nevertheless, there are significant differences in the types of
packaging and fragrance to bring out a masculine aspect of the products. In the
end, marketers can easily exploit gender perceptions to grow their business by
encouraging the market to pursue self-identification using their products. They
could also exploit the existence of some of the unpopular gender stereotypes to
encourage consumption as an avenue through which existing gender positions and
perspectives can be altered.
The selling point for any brand is its
ability to facilitate identity as desired by customers. In regards to gender
identity, customers are more likely to consume products that conform to their
preferences in regards to masculinity and femininity. Where these identities
are not inherent in the product features, they can also be created through
imagery where branding is done to associate such products or brands with the
corresponding gender traits. Marketers can therefore benefit immensely by
understanding and exploiting the concept of gender identity through consumer
choices.
Conclusion
From the discussions above, it is clear
that products carry a symbolic meaning and people tend to consume them to
identify with the meanings that they carry. One of the identities that
customers seek to project is gender identity. This is done by allocating
different levels of femininity and masculinity to products. Clothes, foods,
drinks and other products serve as platforms for expressing gender identity. A
central component is the society and culture. Societies create stereotypes on
the femininity and masculinity of certain products and members of the society
are often forced to conform to the same while seeking to identify with their
different genders through consumption.
They could also form to resist the
culture and seek to entrench alternative consumption patterns aimed at
confronting existing stereotypes. These acts of cultural resistance often tend
to result in changing cultural perceptions about certain products. For
instance, the increased drinking prevalence among women is likely to change the
image that alcohol is a masculine product in the long run. Irrespective of
whether one conforms or confronts the dominant culture, the association between
gender identity and consumption is established. This is the reason why
marketers seek to exploit these gender representations to target different
market segments to ensure that they are adopted in the markets.
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