COMPARING METHODS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (AGAINST QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH)

•          Silverman (1993) lists four specific methods of qualitative research. These are:

•          A) Observation

•          B) Textual analysis

•          C) Interviews

•          D) Transcripts

Different Uses for Four Methods

•          Observation:  Fundamental to understanding another culture

•          Textual Analysis:  Understanding participants’ categories

•          Interviews: ‘Open-ended’ questions to small samples

•          Transcripts: Used to understand how participants organise their talk

•          (Source: Silverman 1993;9)

A)     Observation

1. A method of seeing through he eyes of research participants
2. Involves description
3. Relates to contextualism
4. Involves Process
5. Adopts flexible research designs
6. Avoids early use of theories and concepts

1.  Researcher attempts to see events, actions, values and so on from the perspective of research participants
2. Description of detailed action etc to provide pointers to otherwise hidden layers of reality
3. Contextualism: events are understood only when they are  situated in their wider social and historical contexts
4. . Process: seeing social life as an ongoing series of events
5. 5. Flexible research designs: use of open and unstructured research design. Leads to possible discovery of unexpected issues
6. 6. Avoiding early use of theories etc: researchers avoid imposing theories and concepts of realities they are yet to  understand

B) Textual Analysis

•          Files

•          Official statistics

•          Public records

•          Memoires

•          Annual Reports, etc

C) The Interview

Possible rationales for opting for the interview approach:

1. When data required involves emotions, experiences and feelings
2. When information sought is based on sensitive issues
3. When data is based on privileged information

Researchers need to also consider the following:

Possibility of gaining direct access to prospective interviewees

Value for money in terms of time, effort and potential outcomes of interviews

Types of research interview

1. Structured interviews
2. Semi-structured interviews
3. Unstructured interviews
4. Group interviews
5. Focus groups

Structured Interviews

1. These involve tight control over the wording and sequencing of questions
2. The structure is aimed at ‘standardisation’.
3. Usually used to gather quantitative data
4. Usually used in surveys
5. Equivalent to verbal questionnaires

Semi-structured interviews

•          Here the interviewer commences with a clear list of issues to be addressed and questions to be answered

•          Allowance is given, however, for flexibility in following leads and developing emergent ideas and concepts

•          Interviewees are encouraged to provide open-ended answers that could be probed for further detail and insight

Unstructured Interviews

•          Here the interviewer deliberately avoids a structured approach to the questions asked

•          A great deal of effort is put into detecting openings in interviewees’ responses in order to follow them up for greater detail

•          In this type of interview different interviewees may be asked different questions, albeit following a pre-determined general goal of enquiry.

•          Interviewees are allowed to speak their mind

•          The interviews themselves can be quite in-depth

Group Interviews

•          Semi-structured and unstructured interviews tend not to be administered on a one-to-one basis

•          However, groups may be interviewed together

•          The aim is to allow interaction between group members towards the revelation of shared understandings

•          The group interview may also reveal differences of opinion that may not surface if the other modes of interview were to be employed

Focus Groups

•          This has been discussed in a previous lecture

•          Further points are: the sessions may centre around a stimulus, a trigger or a prompt introduced by the facilitator to focus the discussion

•          Group interaction is valued here

•          Here too, insights that may not be unearthed in one-to-one interviews, may crop up

The interviewer effect

•          The interviewer comes to the interview with his/her own attitudes, prejudices, preferences, cultural views etc

•          Issues like age difference between interviewer and interviewee, class differences, occupational status etc can have great impact on responses obtained from interviews

•          Gender differences, ethnic differences  may also matter

•          Many interviews require the interviewer to be as neutral as possible

•          However, in ethnographic interviews (where the interviewer aims to  ‘appropriate’ the meanings that participants attach to their world), the interviewer may suspend attempts at objectivity as much as possible

Some practical points for interviewers

1. Determine the question or series of questions to be addressed during the interviews
2. The above may be strict or more general, depending on the type of interview being planned
3. Choice of research participants should be done carefully to obtain the most relevant information concerning the required research question
4. Authorisation: permission must be obtained from relevant ‘gatekeepers’ and interviewees

5         Vulnerable participants, e.g. under-age children should be protected by seeking permission from parents, teachers and other figures of authority

6              The nature of the interview should be revealed for ethical reasons

7. Arranging the venue: adequate time must be allowed for interviewees to get to the selected venue

8. The venue itself has to be checked for safety, temperature, accessibility

9.            All efforts must be made to avoid distractions, e.g.  Telephone calls

Recording the interview

•          the usual method is to use an audio-recorder

•          A video recorder may also be used

•          ‘Field notes’ may also be gathered using pen and paper

•          Gestures and exclamation and facial expressions may be indicated in the field notes where these enhance the understanding of material that is gathered

Tactics for interviews: prompts, probes and checks

1. Remain silent                        -prompt
2. Repeat question                    -prompt
3. Repeat the last few words

                spoken by informant              -prompt

4. Offer examples                      -prompt
5. Ask for an example                - probe
6. Ask for clarification                 -probe
7. Ask for more details                -probe
8. Summarise thoughts               -check

D )   Transcripts

•          These are written notes obtained using audio-visual equipment (ensure that equipment is in good working order prior to commencing the interview/observation, etc.)

•          Difficult to analyse as human conversation rarely follows a neat/strict order. An example is given below of the transcript from a group interview situation:

Example

Interviewer: What was your experience of the recent changes put in place to correct ….?

Interviewee A: Erhm., you know, the boss won’t….

Interviewee B: Like as I was saying…

Interviewee C: Hold on, you’re not answering the question

Interviewee B: Which of the bosses….

Interviewee A: You know, him.. (winking and tilting head to a door to the left)

Interviewee B: Oh, him??!... Anyway as I was saying….