Race and ethnicity: Diversity management

Race and ethnicity

¨  Both terms used to draw boundaries between different groups

¨  Often used interchangeably in popular and policy discourse but different histories and meanings

¨  Race refers to observable physical difference e.g. skin colour, hair type, facial features

¨  Ethnicity refers to cultural difference related to common ancestry, national or regional origin, language and customs

(Fenton 1999, Pilkington 2003)

 ‘For clearness of explanation we may divide newly married couples into three classes, with respect to the probable civic worth of their offspring. There would be a small class of ‘desirables,’ a large class of ‘passables,’ of whom nothing more will be said here, and a small class of ‘undesirables.’ It would clearly be advantageous to the country if social and moral support as well as timely material help were extended to the desirables, and not monopolised as it is now apt to be by the undesirables’.

Galton, F (1908) Memories of My Life. London. Chapter XXI. Race Improvement

Race and ethnicity: social constructs

¨  Race can only be understood in specific social and historical contexts such as:

¤  Slavery and post-slavery

¤  Colonialism and post-colonialism

¤   Nation-state formation

Race and racism

¨  Biological theories of race were discredited by genetic research in 20^th century

¨  But racial stereotyping still prevalent – racism means a belief in racial differences between people which is used to justify discrimination against certain groups

¨  Contemporary race research is about social meanings given to race, not actual differences between groups

¨  Racism is not a static concept but a shifting historically situated ideology (Solomos 2003) e.g. ‘institutional racism’.

¨  Different historical contexts give rise to different types of ethnicity.

¨  the modern usage of the term ethnicity developed much later than that of race and can generally be taken to refer to specific social and cultural attributes – such as language, dress, food, music, religion, beliefs and origin

¨  Ethnicity – definition
‘a social group having a common national or cultural tradition, characteristic of or influenced by the traditions of a particular people or culture, denoting origin by birth or descent rather than nationality, relating to race or culture.’

Oxford English Dictionary.

¨  Ethnicity – definition:

Those human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or of customs or both, or because of memories of colonization and migration; this belief must be important for group formation; furthermore it does not matter whether an objective blood relationship exists

¨  Max Weber, Economy and Society, 1925

Context: why it matters

• Census 1991: 3.1 million, or 5.5 % of population
• Census 2001: 4.6 million, or 7.9 % of population.
• Estimated that Black, Asian and other ethnic minorities will rise from 8% of the population, as recorded in the 2001 census, to 20% by 2051.

Salt, J. and Rees, P. (2010) 'Globalisation, population mobility and impact of migration on population'. Swindon: Economic and Social Research Council.

Perceptions and reality

Do you think ethnic minorities are given extra advantages when it comes to hiring them for jobs?

                                Total      White    Black      Asian

                Yes         27%        28%        14%        13%

                No          56%        54%        73%        73%

  Don't know       18%        18%        13%        14%

Do you think the colour of a person’s skin makes a difference in the way they are treated at work?

                                Total      White    Black      Asian

                Yes         37%        35%        53%        47%

                No          51%        53%        38%        43%

  Don't know       12%        12%        9%          10%

Context: discrimination at work

In spite of anti-discrimination race legislation there is evidence of persistent direct discrimination and prejudice.

Numerous examples from research:

• For example, discrimination testing (where two or more testers equally matched in every respect except their ethnicity apply for the same job vacancy at the same time) (Wood et al. 2009) and case study research (Cashmore 2001, Holdaway and O’Neill 2007).

Overt and covert racism

• Overt racism before the introduction of the 1965 Race Relations Act
• A migrant from the Caribbean explains
• Post-Macpherson Report in 1999 – institutional racism:
  ‘The collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin. It can be seen or detected in processes, attitudes and behaviour which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness and racial stereotyping which disadvantage minority ethnic people’ (Macpherson 1999, para 6.34).
• Big effect on how racism was discussed and debated – and how organisation began to consider how structures might inadvertently disadvantage certain groups 
• This is a short film of a TUC conference on  tacking racism in the workplace  ‘Stephen Lawrence 10 years after held in November 2009.

• Overt racism prior to Macpherson (1999): e.g. racist jokes in public spaces and in the presence of ethnic minority staff (Cashmore 2001)
• Covert racism post-Macpherson: making sense of ambiguous evidence (Holdaway and O’Neill 2007)
  ‘…it’s the covert racism. It’s the stuff that gets in the bloodstream of an organisation and that is how I describe institutional racism. And that’s really because you can’t see it, you can’t smell it, you can’t taste it, but you know if you go for a job you ain’t going to get it because it’s always internal. And you can’t put your finder on what, but you knos in your heart of hearts why and those sorts of things’ (Chair of Black Police Association) (Holdaway and O’Neill 2007: 397)

•       Race policy can change behaviour without any change in attitudes

•       Racist language confined to private spaces (e.g. the police car or lift) and off duty socialising

•       Discretionary use of formal organisational rules to disguise discrimination:

“So they would never turn round to a member from a minority background and say, ‘Well, because you’re black, I don’t think you’ll fit into my squad…’..but during the course of the interview, the competences would be assessed in a way that that person would never be successful’ (Holdaway and O’Neill 2007: 409)

Lack of action by a white supervisor when a black officer

Case study one

Bennetto, J. (2009) 'Police and racism: What has been achieved 10 years after the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry report?'. London: Equality and Human Rights Commission.

• Increase in BME groups as % of all police staff to 8% in 2007 (Home Office target for 2009: 7%)
• Increase of BME police officers from 2% in 1999 to 3.9% in 2007 (Home Office target for 2009: 7%)
• Rate of resignation for BME officers in the first 6 months is higher (6.1%) than for white officers (3.1%)
• Specialist squads e.g. robbery, anti-terrorist and firearms units, are seen by BME officers as ‘closed shops’, ‘dominated by white middle-aged men, old fashioned work practices and high level of “canteen culture”’, ‘a play hard, work hard, drinking culture’ (EHRC 2009: 16).

EHRC report (2009)

There has been an increase in BME groups as % of police staff groups since 1999. % figures for 2007 are:

• Police civilian staff                                                                           6.4
• Police community support officers                                           11.6
• Police constables                                                                                             4.2
• Police sergeants                                                                                               2.9
• Chief inspectors                                                                                               2.5
• Superintendents and above                                                       2.7
• All police staff                                                                                    8.0

Case study two
Workplace bullying: the race dimension

A study of 13 public sector organisations in South Wales (Lewis and Gunn 2007):

• 1 in 5 respondents reported experiencing workplace bullying (9% of white respondents and 35% of non-white respondents; 17% of males and 24% of females)
• The two principle sources of bullying were line managers and colleagues of equivalent grade.
• Non-white respondents were more likely to experience personalised bullying rather than work role bullying from line managers
• White respondents were more likely to experience work role bullying rather than personalised bullying from line managers
• Bullying by colleagues of equivalent grade tends to be personalised e.g. exclusion, humiliation, being ignored, undermined and patronised
•  Also found evidence of a shift from overt racism (jokes and graffiti) to more subtle bullying behaviours.

EU anti-discrimination legislation

• Until the mid 1990s the focus of EU Equality policy was on gender.
• Early 1990s increase in racist violent incidents and resurgence of extreme-right-wing political parties.
• Concern that with EU enlargement racism, xenophobia and discrimination would jeopardize full economic integration and social cohesion.
• NGO Lobbying – Starting Line Group set up 1991
• Lots of research evidence on racial discrimination in European workplaces which has informed policy in this are (e.g. Wrench 1996)

EU anti-discrimination policy

• The Amsterdam Treaty (AT) (1997) Article 13 granted powers to combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age, sexual orientation
• Racial Equality Directive (2000)
• Prohibits discrimination on grounds of race or ethnicity in all aspects of life including education, goods and services
• Member states are required to have a National Equality Body to promote equal treatment and assist victims of discrimination.
• Employment Equality Directive (2000)
• Prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion or belief, disability, age and sexual orientation
• Applies only to discrimination in employment and training

EU Employment Guidelines (2003)

• 3 objectives set:
• Full employment
• Quality and productivity at work
• Social cohesion and inclusion, including:
• action to promote the integration of immigrants and ethnic minorities.
• But no European-wide targets set for combating discrimination in employment

(Liegl et al. 2004)

Race equality legislation (GB)

• Race Relations Act 1976
• Prohibited discrimination on grounds of race and ethnicity (covered employment). Established the Commission for Racial Equality
• Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000
• Extended 1976 Act and established a new duty of public bodies to promote race equality
• Race Relations Act 1976 (Amendment) Regulations 2003
• Implemented EU Race Directive 2000/43/EC which prohibits discrimination on the grounds of race and ethnic origin – covers a range of fields including employment and occupation.
• Codes of Practice:
• Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) (2002) Code of Practice on the Duty to Promote Race Equality
•  CRE (2005) Statutory Code of Practice on Racial Equality in Employment

Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000:
The duty to promote race equality

• All public authorities are required to have a Race Equality Scheme:
• Setting out processes e.g. monitoring, consultation, training, publishing results, assessment of outcomes
• The employment duty requires that:
• All public authorities:
• Monitor by ethnic group their existing staff, applicants for jobs, promotion and training
• Publish the results every year
• All authorities with 150 full-time staff also monitor grievances, disciplinary action, performance appraisals, training, dismissals

Implementation of the public sector duty to promote race equality

• Organisations have varied in their focus on different targets
• The criminal justice sector was prominent in setting targets for public confidence and community relations
• Central government had focused on workforce representation targets
• Education institutions appeared slower to identify outcomes
• Progress in implementing the duty with regard to employment was variable
• Most organisations were focusing on monitoring staff and applicant profiles, rather than considering the impact of human resources practices on those already in post
• Race equality schemes were most likely to be linked to wider corporate plans where lead responsibility was at CEO or board level

CRE (2002)

The EU Employment Directive  implementation in UK

• Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulation                    December 2003
• Employment Equality (Religion and Belief) Regulation                     December 2003
• Prohibits direct or indirect discrimination, harassment or victimisation on grounds of religion or belief within employment or vocational training.
• Disability Discrimination Act (Amendment) Regulation                    October 2004
• Sex Discrimination Act (Amendment) Regulations                            October 2005
• Employment Equality (Age) Regulations                                                                October 2006

Employment Tribunals (ETs)

• Under RRA 1976, a person who believes he or she has been discriminated against at work on racial grounds (as an employee, job applicant or someone who has been dismissed) can make a complaint to an ET. Racial grounds cover race, ethnicity and nationality.
• For further details see Brown et al. (2006) and Aston et al. (2006)

Equalities review (2007)

• A Review commissioned by the Prime Minister into the causes of persistent discrimination and inequality in England Wales and Scotland, intended to inform the modernisation of equality legislation and the development of the new Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC).
• ‘the pursuit of equality is about empowering people to live their dreams, to be themselves and to be different, if they wish’ (p.16)

Critiques of the equalities legislation (GB)

• Fragmented, piecemeal, confusing
• Focused on individual complaints not on preventing discrimination
• Limits of the individual complaint as a mechanism for enforcement (cost and complexity, fear of victimisation)
• Focused on processes not outcomes:
• ‘You end up doing the document rather than doing the doing’ – ‘the politics of documentation’ (Ahmed 2007)

Equalities Review (2007)

Limited scope for positive action to address inequalities

• Lack of guidance to employers
• Lack of evidence on the impact of policies
• Until 2007, lack of coordination between Commissions for race, gender and disability. (Equalities Review, 2007)

¨  The Equality Act 2010 brings together nine separate pieces of legislation into one single Act simplifying the law and strengthening it in important ways to help tackle discrimination and inequality.

¨  Implementation of the majority of the Equality Act began on 1 October 2010. http://www.equalities.gov.uk/equality_bill.aspx

The limits of regulation

• Thomas and Ely (2001) analyse diversity perspectives and work group processes and effectiveness in three case study organisations, a law firm, a financial services firm and a consulting firm. Each of the case studies provides an illustration of one of the diversity management paradigms discussed in Thomas and Ely (1996)
• The dominant diversity perspectives were as follows:
• Consulting firm: ‘discrimination and fairness’
• Financial services firm: ‘access and legitimacy’
• Law firm: ‘integration and learning’ (learning and effectiveness in 1996 paper)
• The article discusses the strengths, weaknesses and effectiveness of the different approaches to diversity management in each of the case study organisations, concluding that a higher level of group process and effectiveness was in evidence in the case study with an integration and learning perspective.
• Whilst the findings cannot be generalised this is a very interesting in depth exploration of perspectives and processes in specific workplaces.

Empty shell or substance?

Hoque and Noon (2004): research based on data from 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey (WERS):

• 58% of workplaces had formal written equality or diversity policies addressing ethnicity
• For policies to have substance, specific practices (e.g. monitoring procedures) are required to implement the policies
• Significant numbers of organisations with policies had few or no equality practices:
• Only 42% of workplaces with an ethnicity policy carried out ethnic monitoring of posts
• Only 17% of workplaces with an ethnicity policy had recruitment procedures to encourage ethnic minorities

(Hoque and Noon 2004)

Conclusion

• Ethnic minority groups have succeeded in advancing their position in the British labour market over the last 30 years.
• This is partly linked to anti-discrimination legislation but also to political action and the investments of ethnic minorities in their own education, careers and businesses.
• However racial discrimination and ethnic inequalities in the workplace persist in Britain after 30 years of race equality legislation.
• Racial discrimination takes different forms (both direct and indirect) and may involve individual prejudice or organisational practices and culture.
• Legislation and regulation is more effective at changing behaviour than changing attitudes.
• Attitudes are more likely to be changed by effective management of cultural diversity and good group processes in the workplace.

Bibliography

Aston, J., Hill, D. and Tackey, N. D. (2006) The experience of claimants in race discrimination Employment Tribunal cases, DTI Employment Relations Research Series No. 55, London: DTI http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file27818.pdf

Berthoud, R. (2000) ‘Ethnic employment penalties in Britain’ Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 26, 3: 389-416

Blackaby, D. H., Leslie, D. G., Murphy, P. D. and O’Leary, N. C. (2002) ‘White/ethnic minority earnings and employment differentials in Britain’, Oxford Economic Papers, 54, pp. 270-97.

Brown, A., Erskine, A. and Littlejohn, D. (2006) Review of Judgements in race discrimination Employment Tribunal cases, DTI Employment Relations Research Series No. 64, London: DTI http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file34687.pdf

Cabinet Office Strategy Unit (2003) Ethnic Minorities and the Labour Market: Final Report http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/strategy/work_areas/ethnic_minorities.aspx

Cashmore, E. (2001) ‘The experiences of ethnic minority police officers in Britain: under-recruitment and racial profiling in a performance culture’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 642-59

Clark, K. and Drinkwater, S. (2007) Ethnic minorities in the labour market: dynamics and diversity York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.JRF http://www.jrf.org.uk/publications/ethnic-minorities-labour-market-dynamics-and-diversity

Commission for Racial Equality (2002) Towards Racial Equality (London: CRE)

Connor, H., Tyers, C., Modood, T., Hillage, J. (2004) Why the Difference? A Closer Look at Higher Education Minority Ethnic Students and Graduates Research Report No. 552, Department for Education and Skills http://www.employment-studies.co.uk/pubs/summary.php?id=rr552

EHRC. (2010) 'How fair is Britain? Equality, Human Rights and Good Relations in 2010 The First Triennial Review'. London: Equalities and Human Rights Commission.

Ely, R. J. & Thomas, D. A. 2001. Cultural diversity at work: The effects of diversity perspectives on work group processes and outcomes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46(2): 229-273.management